Introduction - “Games for a Read / Write World.”

A study of the cultural and interpersonal dimensions and evolving tool use of an emerging community of families coding digital games together.

Ideas to add into the introduction

1. Introduction to the thesis

Introduction to increased use and importance of technology in western society

We live in a society where digital technology is increasingly used in work and home life, providing diverse opportunities.

However, these opportunities come with potential implications and costs at both a societal and individual level.

Over the lifespan of this thesis there has been a shift from a concern around deficit of computer literate workforce to impact of AI on the workforce in more general terms.

Convenience and automation of tasks in the form of commercial software services and AI can diminish critical thinking skills and make individuals overly reliant on technology.

A particular area of concern surrounds sophisticated media production and delivery systems which driven by algorithmically generated suggestions can foster a passive consumption of media. These concerns have led many to call for a broader approach to digital education that includes media literacy, hands-on coding experiences and creative digital projects. This would therefore encourage a more active and critical engagement with technology in a way that would potentially benefit wider society.

A relevant factor within this picture is increasing calls for digital and resistance often taking the form of reduced participation or consumption [@syvertsen_digital_2020]. However, for young people with their working life ahead of them non-participation in the digital landscape as a strategy may be a limiting and potentially alienating strategy. Also, given that digital non-participation may remove critical voices from important debates on our futures, a more tactical and participatory approach may be more productive both on an individual level and for society.

Introduction to issues for technology use for young people

Some of the greatest areas for concern relate to the developmental changes in for young people as individuals. The impact of increased screen time on mental health and subsequent impact of reduced social interactions real life are areas of concern under research.

Participation of young people within areas of social media and online gaming in particular reflect ongoing tensions related to the opportunities for self-expression and the dangers of identity formation within digital spaces that are hard for parents to participant in for governments to effectively regulate.

Introduction to the focus of the study on computer game design and programming (CGD&P)

REVISIT THIS - HOW TO PUT IN A NUTSHELL?

The research process of this thesis brings families together in a new learning environment to learn how to create video games based on early arcade and platform games.

As such this thesis addresses diverse elements including the development of skills needed to participate in computer game design and programming (CGD&P), the process of self-expression and identity development within an emerging community, and possibilities to structure the learning experience to help overcome inherent barriers to participation.

CGD&P is relevant in both contexts of both formal and non-formal computing education. The next section outlines the changing contextual features of both areas.

Format of this chapter

Keep this brief.

Following this, I outline key barriers to participation to game making identifying factors of technical, cultural, and practical dimensions.

2. Context / Background

This introduction begins an exploration of key contextual factors. The immediate context of the core activities of this research was a new learning community involving of home-educating families attending a series of game-making sessions in the setting of my University campus. Sessions involved families, myself (as both a researcher and teaching facilitator), and for most sessions, volunteer student helpers. This section situates this research within key contextual themes.

This section begins with digital making as a more general theme before focuses in on game making.

CONTEXT - MORE GENERAL COMPUTING

Background of informal settings / non-formal and home education context

MOVED FROM CH 2. INTEGRATE

The setting of this research within the scope of non-formal activity attended by home educating families, while not a key focus of the study, is relevant and as such needs clarifying.

NON FORMAL OR INFORMAL The term informal is examined briefly here using two dimensions: setting and educational structure. While definitions of informal education are complex, the term generally refers to learning that occurs outside a traditional school environment [@erstad_identity_2012]. However, as Sefton-Green [@sefton-green_literature_2006] notes, formally structured learning can take place in informal settings, and vice-versa. Others writers [@eshach_bridging_2007, p. 173; @werquin_recognition_2009] use the term “non-formal” describe learning that happens outside of formal institutions, which may involve little instruction but still comprises a carefully planned learner experience, contrasting with both formal and unstructured learning. This study uses the term non-formal in this way, while informal is used more loosely to indicate unstructured, open activities happening outside a classroom lesson.

SOMETHING ABOUT FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE

Turning to the structural dimension of education, there is also a lack of a clear division between formal and informal approaches [@rogoff_organization_2016]. Rogoff outline a false dichotomy between children-led (based on free exploration), and adult-led (focused on direct instruction) approaches [@rogoff_observing_1995, p.211], proposing instead a more complex community-based understanding of learning that includes concepts of guided participation and apprenticeship [@rogoff_developing_1994].

These concepts are explored in more detail in the following chapter. For now, it is sufficient for the discussion of this chapter, to introduce guided participation as a process of active involvement in cultural and social activities, under the guidance of more experienced individuals under the guidance of more experienced members, offering an alternative to the simplistic children-led/adult-led spectrum.

Home education context

The processes and motivations driving of home education are varied [@fensham-smith_invisible_2021]. These motivations are often categorized into two broad streams: pedagogy and ideology [@galen_home_1991; @rothermel_can_2003]. Addressing ideology, some families choose home education to limit their children’s exposure to mainstream values, such as religious beliefs or consumerist ideals. In terms of pedagogy, popular concepts within home education circles include unschooling and deschooling. Holt’s concept of unschooling [@gray_challenges_2013] emphasises facilitating learning by drawing out children’s interests through everyday activities. Illich’s work on deschooling promotes the idea of webs of learning [@illich_deschooling_1971], where learners access educational experiences in varied contexts based on their interests and needs, rather than relying on a single educational institution as the sole source of knowledge. Many home-educating families actively seek and establish networks, using friendships, social networking groups, and email lists to share opportunities and collaborate on learning activities [@doroudi_relevance_2023]. The game-making club that forms the basis of this research can be viewed as one node within the complex web of learning that participating families engage with.

Context of wider digital making and culture home and informal settings

MOVED FROM CHAPTER 2 INTEGRATE DOWN

Before addressing studies directly focused on computer game programming in Chapter 2, it is relevant to examine broader studies on areas of activity around games and the resulting diverse learning outcomes. Observations of young people’s enthusiastic involvement in digital media and game making, and meta-gaming in informal communities have sparked questions on how to leverage this interest for other educational aims [@gee_what_2004; @papert_mindstorms_1980]. Gee [@gee_what_2004] frames these informal, often online communities as affinity spaces where activities and culture created around games are termed meta-gaming. He examines how shared discourses and emerging identities develop within these spaces. Researcher Mizuko Ito’s ethnographic approach to studies of informal digital consumption and making in the home [@ito2013connected; @ito_hanging_2010; @ito_living_2009], charts a progression in proficiency of young makers of digital products within online communities. This approach, connecting the affordances of new online tools with the sociocultural view of learning as embedded within social and cultural contexts, is well represented via case studies and is framed a pedagogical approach described as Connected Learning in a book of the same name [@ito2013connected]. One of the contributors, Sefton Green [@sefton-green_mapping_2013] explores the wider context of digital making including anxieties around the use of digital technology by young people and and it’s alignment with valued digital skills required by the workforce. He notes both the potential and current lack of research on the transfer of learning opportunities and learner trajectories between informal experiences, formal learning settings and professional destinations.

ETHOS AND MOTIVATION

The desire to complete a particular project and self-motivated access to the resources to achieve it is the stuff of computing mythology, recalling the kind of garage innovation that created Apple computer and early hacker computing culture [@fuller_garage_2015].

The underlying ethos of the maker movement is relevant here which can be described as a complex mix of enthusiast and industry and progressive educational approaches [@de_vries_maker_2018].

These tools and practices were mostly free both in terms of cost and through the use of open copyright licences, a characteristic that contributed to their widespread success adoption.

COMMUNITY

The engagement of many teachers and enthusiastic volunteers in these initiatives these is documented the proliferation of videos, blog posts, and other resources sharing novel practice. This ground swell of community activity contributed to the already active Maker Movement ,as illustrated by events like Liverpool MakeFest which and Raspberry Jam events. These grassroots events brought together teachers, professionals, young people and their families to engage with diverse new technologies in playful, empowering and technically challenging ways.

TOOLS (keep general)

The Arduino board and the affordable, compact, and hackable Raspberry Pi computer opened new avenues for physical computing .

In early 2013, MIT released Scratch 2.0, a block-coding tool for beginners, featuring an online editor and enhanced community interaction, including project remixing. Educators have adapted creative ‘sandbox’ games like Minecraft to develop design skills in a playful environment. Other accessible hardware, such as Makey Makey and Microbit, combine web-based block coding with simple physical computing. For more advanced learners, free web-based courses on authentic, text-based programming languages like Python and JavaScript added interactive elements to scaffold and motivate the acquisition of coding concepts and practical coding skills. A notable example is Code Academy.

THE ROLE OF CONSTRUCTIONISM AND CRITIQUE OF THAT AND MAKER MOVEMENT.

MOVE TO INTRO? Vossoughi and other researchers also highlight political and social concerns associated with constructionism [@thumlert2018learning; @vossoughi_making_2016]. They argue that a constructionist approach can implicitly favour coding as a pathway to joining the computer programming industry and developing employability skills in young people. Thumlert and colleagues caution against the appropriation of skills such as creativity and ‘design thinking’, which they argue are increasingly co-opted by market-driven agendas rather than being used for critical and emancipatory purposes [@thumlert2018learning, p.4]. They also warn that this positioning could lead to the integration of constructionist approaches into instruction-based models that are narrowly focused on curricular concerns, rather than fostering the development of computational fluency, which supports learners’ expression within a community [@thumlert2018learning].

Context of school-based computing education

The changing shape of provision on UK digital-focused education in schools can be profitably examined through several key developments. The first is Google leader Eric Schmidt’s speech as a MacTaggart lecture in Edinburgh in 2011, critiquing current computing provision, “Your IT curriculum focuses on teaching how to use software, but gives no insight into how it’s made” [@schmidt_eric_2011, p.8]. The second was a report “Shut Down or Restart?” by the Royal Society (RSA) [the_royal_society_shut_2012] released in early 2012. The report recommended steering the ICT curriculum towards computer science and programming, providing funding professional development and a greater inclusivity in computing education, and increased partnership work with computing professionals. In the same week Michael Gove [@-gove_michael_2012] announced the scrapping the ICT curriclum. Finally, the new computing curriculum was released in 2013 to a mixed response [@dfe2013national]. However, while community responses were collected via a consultation, a clear consensus to avoid removal of too much digital literacy and creative project work was ignored in the final curriculum [@twining_we_2013]. Preston [@preston_re-engineering_2013] shares Twining’s perspective that Gove and Schmidt’s critique of previous ICT provision was misjudged, sharing a perspective that the ICT had been given a good kicking in part as a political football.

A recent report by Kemp and colleagues [@kemp_considerations_2024] on the future of computing education confirms some of these initial concerns about the 2013 computing curriculum and related exams. The report outlines the disparity and dropping numbers in the uptake of digital-related qualifications. A previous report, “After the Reboot” [@waite_pedagogy_2017], found that girls, ethnic minorities, and students of lower socio-economic status were all less likely to take computing as a subject at the GCSE level, in part due to cultural barriers and the relative difficulty of the subject. The review highlighted several areas of promise that needed more research that are relevant to this study including: game making as a way of increasing engagement in coding, use of design patterns to scaffold coding processes, and a greater focus on social and cultural aspects of coding. However, despite the report’s advocacy for game making and other digital projects to mitigate issues of exclusion, the structural limitations of the curriculum and computing exams remain. These factors have led may practitioners and researchers to investigate game making in more informal settings.

MOVED INTEGRATE UP The contextual challenges in UK computing education outline above contrast with the positive developments in digital making, specifically through new software and hardware. The decline in participation in digital qualifications after curriculum changes highlights a mismatch between the curriculum and the opportunities provided by recent advancements.

MOVED INTEGRATE UP The refocusing of the UK curriculum and supporting exams in the area of digital education towards a more abstract approach to computer science concepts over a skills-based production has raised concerns. Kemp and colleagues’[@kemp_future_2024] recent report on the future of computing education notes the decreasing take up of computing by girls and those in lower socio-economic areas and an increasingly unequal offer of digital-based exams to students. One of the recommendations of this report is to offer more informal digital making and project work involving coding as an inclusive practice.

Turing to games

An introduction to the benefits of on digital game making

Broad Motivations for CGD&P

While much research on digital game making focuses on its educational benefits for subjects like mathematics and science, as well as enhancing coding skills [@kafai_constructionist_2015], there is also a diverse range of motivations behind game making, including critical making and empowerment.

REFRAME AGENCY? In this thesis, I explore digital game making as a vehicle to develop to computational fluency and participation in coding community practices. The participants in this study are small groups of home educating families undertaking short, informally-structured game making courses. While this thesis covers the practical process of learning to code, it also addresses aspects of game making that are more to do with the overall expressive value of digital media. To serve this exploration the concepts of computational fluency (one used within foundational CGD&P research) and agency are used as a guiding principle throughout the thesis.

MOVE LATER? The term communicates ‘not only an understanding of computational concepts and problem-solving strategies, but also the ability to create and express oneself with digital technologies’ [@resnick_computational_2018]. For Resnick, fluency, whether with writing or coding, helps develop your thinking, voice, and identity [@resnick_lifelong_2017]. Resnick’s aim here is to critique formulaic and instruction-based computing education [@resnick_coding_2020].

The potential of digital game making of retro games with families

Thus, the process of making retro games with families lies at a confluence of diverse contexts, motivations, and possibilities. My study, in part, asks how the motivational and navigational affordances of enthusiast game making communities can be brought into more structured educational environments.

DROP OR MOVE THIS? WHERE AGENCY? To answer this question, theoretical and practical understandings of the development of agency in the participation in informal community-based projects are of value.

Game-playing practices and the opportunities provided by participation in wider communities continue to evolve. For example, casual and retro games played by both adults and children are increasingly available via smartphones and home consoles. The nostalgia around such games and the associated aesthetics of cuteness create a potential for connection between younger and older players [@boyle_retro-futurism_2017]. The sustained popularity of retro games together with easy-to-use game making tools and code frameworks, provides an entry point for game players into game making cultures which is reflected in the success of amateur game-publishing websites like itch.io [@garda_nostalgia_2014].

Barriers to participation in programming and specifically CGD&P

This section explores relevant studies to outline the barriers to participation in CGD&P, addressing three key areas: technical barriers, access to suitable technology and environments, and issues related to identity and values.

CGD&P inherits some of the intrinsic difficulties associated with computer programming [@sentance_teaching_2019; @gomes2007learning; @joao_cross-analysis_2019]. These difficulties include the complexity of programming syntax, the challenge of understanding abstract concepts, and problems with transferring skills between different contexts [@gomes2007learning; @rahmat_major_2012]. To address these issues, specialist coding tools, such as block-based coding environments, have been developed for novice coders, particularly younger audiences. These tools aim to simplify coding syntax, project organisation, and the overall complexity of the coding environment [@yu_survey_2018]. However, this simplification creates a tension between using more authentic programming languages and relying on scaffolded, specialised approaches [@joao_cross-analysis_2019]. Sefton-Green [-@sefton-green_mapping_2013] explores this tension in the context of digital making, contrasting Mozilla Webmaker tools (which use web languages like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript) with block-based systems like Scratch, which can obscure learners from authentic code languages.

Regarding access to CGD&P, one significant barrier is the inequality of access to participatory culture communities. Historically, the lack of access to the necessary technology, such as high-cost computers, was a major issue [@resnick_computer_1996]. While equipping community centres with computers may have addressed some of these concerns, technological access is only one dimension of the problem. Sefton-Green [-@sefton-green_mapping_2013] argues that motivated and capable facilitators are crucial for enabling participation, suggesting that even with improved access to equipment, many young people still face barriers. The full potential of online metagaming communities, as described by Ito and Gee [-@ito_hanging_2010; -@gee_what_2004], remains largely inaccessible to the majority. Among those who do participate, creative activities that result in finished digital products are rare, with studies such as Luther et al. [-@luther_why_2010] revealing an 80 percent failure rate in collaborative media projects within the New Grounds community.

Addressing barriers linked to identity and values, a key theme in CGD&P is the potential for games to increase inclusivity for those traditionally excluded from computing cultures [@kafai_beyond_2014]. There is significant potential to leverage home interests in computer games to bridge into more structured computing activities. The widespread appeal of casual and retro gaming, alongside the proliferation of retro games in popular culture, offers a rich repository of knowledge that can be utilised in various educational contexts [@moje_working_2004]. However, Kafai and Burke balance this potential with complex issues of the gender representation associated with gaming culture [@kafai_diversifying_2017].

The concepts and legacy of Papert and Turkle’s [-@papert_epistemological_1990] exploration of diversity in coding approaches are introduced through what they call epistemological pluralism. The focus here is on their championing of approaches beyond the dominant formal, abstract approach that “emphasizes control through structure and planning” [@papert_epistemological_1990, p.134]. This approach can be characterised by the following: a top-down design process involving extensive planning prior to coding, explicit teaching of language principles and syntax, and coding from scratch rather than altering existing products. To counter this dominance, Papert and Turkle [-@papert_epistemological_1990] highlighted the value of a more concrete computing pedagogy, likening the process to bricolage, a craft-based approach where participants become very familiar with their tools and materials.

MOVED HERE - OVERALL philosophical APPROACH The celebration here is of pluralism rather than the culturally prevalent perspective privileging abstraction. Abstraction is not seen as undesirable, and indeed, is present in much of Papert’s work. For example, the importance of reducing barriers to learning coding through structural abstraction and thus the simplification of learning environments. Papert’s focus on reducing barriers to participation is present in his focus on child-play as a leading activity rather than teacher-led instruction. This simple but radical perspective also drives some of the foundational work on Microworlds, using the LOGO language as a vehicle to make previously abstract mathematical concepts concrete through exploratory play [@papert_mindstorms_1980]. This perspective continues to drive constructionist design approaches supporting creative computing [@resnick_design_2005; @resnick_scratch_2009; @kafai_constructionism_1996; @kafai_constructionism_1996; @kafai_minds_1994; @lee_playing_2014; @peppler_makeology:_2016].

Addressing gender-based barriers to participation, Papert and Turkle [@papert_epistemological_1990] identified some girls’ alienation from abstract computing approaches. They emphasised the need for diverse teaching and learning styles to address issues surrounding the early socialisation of women and girls, advocating for the inclusion of personal and concrete working styles. Denner and colleagues [@denner_what_2008; @angelides_beyond_2014] highlighted that inclusive gender practice in game making involve allowing participants choice over both the content of their games and the dominant mode of play (game mechanics). Their findings present a nuanced view of girls’ interests in game genres and support research cautioning against gender stereotyping and rigid identities in this area [@pelletier_gaming_2008]. Kafai and Burke [@kafai_beyond_2014] address gender identities within game design by advocating for the creation of new communities and learning environments that align with participants’ values, rather than attempting to draw girls into existing, male-dominated spaces. Similarly, Buechley et al. [@buechley_lilypad_2008, p. 431]question, “How can we integrate computer science with activities and communities that girls and women are already engaged in?”

Margolis et al. [@margolis_stuck_2008;] outlined barriers contributing to a racial gap in computing participation and achievement in the US, including feelings of isolation, limited access to computing opportunities, and a lack of social support. DiSalvo and colleagues investigated these barriers within a game testers programme, examining how an interest in computer games could motivate access to computing education [@disalvo_saving_2014; @disalvo_glitch_2009-1; @disalvo_learning_2008]. Their findings indicated that activities should not only be engaging but also align with the underlying values of the programme’s young, African American male participants. Vossoughi et al. [-@vossoughi_making_2016] critique digital making cultures, stressing the need to integrate not only the values but also the cultural experiences of working-class students and students of colour into the making process.

There are limits and gaps in CGD&P research in terms of overcoming barriers to participation. One is the lack of specific pedagogical approaches to address issues of inequality of participation. RETURN TO [@kafai_constructionist_2015] to review. OTHER REVIEWS? UK IN Waite?

3. Rationale for the Study:

Personal context

The role of this thesis regarding the use of technology for self-expression is one reflected in my personal and professional trajectory. My journey into the world of technology and education began in the 1990s via my participation in organising and promoting unlicensed music events and festivals. Email and websites became important tools in this process, and I was an enthusiast early adopter of these technologies. These experiences exposed me to decentralised organising principles, which became an important guidelines for the free software and free culture movements [@lessig_free_2004]. Inspired by these potential of the tools and organising processes, I began to share relevant approaches with local organisations by specialising in internet and media creation training and community development. Related work with FLOSS Manuals, writing and promoting documentation and online learning resources for media creation and collaborative processes using Free Software allowed me to document and advocate for low-cost media and web production methods. A key partner in this process was the Mozilla community where I created documentation, workshop guides and other learning resources with networks of informal educators. At this time co-authored A Open Web [^5], a book which celebrated the opportunities provided by open source and decentralised web technology to create a more egalitarian environment of digital participation, and importantly noted emerging risks to this mode of participation.

Discussion around the launch of a new UK computing curriculum in 2013 championed the possibilities of creative digital production within the classroom [@livingstone2010next]. In that year I undertook a Masters in Computing and in the following year a PGCE in Computing. As part of my PGCE dissertation, I designed and delivered a pilot scheme to teach JavaScript in playful ways. The learning materials were made available as an OER as part of Mozilla’s online teaching resources 1. Unfortunately, the constraints of the school context and the new curriculum hindered the kind of authentic activities that first attracted me to teaching in Computing in schools. Instead, after completing my PGCE, I joined Manchester Metropolitan University in a role focusing on community education partnerships as part of the EdLab project 2. This work provided opportunities to pursue creative, project based approaches to teaching technology to young people and families. Building on the success of this work, I applied to undertake this PhD study with the Education and Social Research Institute of Manchester Metropolitan University (ESRI).

Recap of Personal Motivations

A personal motivation driving this research is to better understand my practice as an activist, community worker and practice-focused educator. As a practitioner, while I had a sense of what success felt like in creative media project work, I lacked clear language to communicate this either in the academic or practice based settings. This motivation has guided me towards existing research reflect on experiences of developing agency within a non-formal communities. In my past community training practice, I used terms like empowerment and promoting learners choice. As I used these terms in an academic context there was push back from colleagues - seeing choice as a term tainted by market driven trends in education. Instead, to help reflect on this issue, this thesis engages with a complex and dynamic picture of participant agency. This complexity is important to this thesis as it allows a full exploration of contextual factors at play, especially initial and emerging barriers to participation to undertaking project work. One research question of thesis addresses the process of developing agency within a community. While agency and autonomy have disputed, often inter-related definitions [@huang_autonomy_2013; @matusov_mapping_2016]. In chapter 3, this study explores the following terms to guide later analysis: instrumental agency; relational agency ; and authorial agency.

Connecting my experience to broader contextual themes

RECAP THE BROADER RESEARCH THEMES

PERHAPS DROP / MERGE THIS SECTION In this section, I outline how these experiences connect to broader research issues on media and game creation within informal learning environments.

My past aims surrounding empowerment through music events and protest movement align with broader movements that advocate equality of access to digital participatory culture.

The processes of building agency in a fledgling community can be seen as important acts of community participation.

I find Rogoff’s reflection that initial first impressions of a ‘chaotic’ environment of learning in a community of learners are false impressions that stem from a lack of understanding of the underlying structure of activity [-@rogoff_developing_nodate, p. 219] useful.

The importance of participation within seemingly chaotic processes as a way of building a collective understanding of the problem area among participants stands out to me a one with great potential to address important contemporary challenges.

These experiences of agency and collective change also has the potential to address problems at larger and smaller scopes.

The sketchy nature of projects in terms of incompleteness also seems to offer potential to avoid unintended consequences through rapid, responsive adjustments made easier by its evolving nature.

These aspects are explored in later chapters in reflections on design-based research.

Rationale of home education settings as a site of research

The contextual features outlined above align with practical factors to make home educators a good fit for this thesis.

The involvement of family members brings out possibilities to connect to home funds of knowledge (is this explored above?)

An alignment with the needs of participants was also a relevant factor in this work with home educators, allowing for reciprocity in the research process. My engagement with game creation via coding stemmed a consultation with home educators as part of my university outreach and partnership work. To align with the interests of parents and children at the consultation asked if we could lead activities which drew on interest their children’s interest in digital games, Minecraft being a named example, to promote computer coding.

Research in schools settings is sometimes hampered by practical issues such as timetable considerations and lack of time for project work outside of the subject curriculum. These factors are largely absent when working with home educating families.

NOTES - could also link with after school club as a similar site. And the value of third spaces (check cross over with Ch.2)

Observations leading to perceived need

The more specific of these go in the more detailed problems statement in the final section of Chapter 2 after a review of existing literature.

The general areas of perceived need are as follows.

  • Less than clear exploration of the goal of social approaches to coding - variations on Fluency
  • Specific pedagogies for social / cultural approaches
  • understandings of how to mobilise funds of knowledge

On Fluency & Agency

Concepts of promise, are that of fluency and agency

The guiding principle unifying these terms is being self expression & the following are relevant.

  • via instrumental coding competency needed to make changes effectively with or without supporting documentation
  • from a as a read / write perspective, learners should be able to write as well as read programs as a form of empowerment [@resnick2002rethinking]
  • via expression of creative or significant ideas in constructing digital products

Given the importance of more intentional pedagogical approaches in this area and the lack of detail in the reviews of CGD&P described above, the following sections will detail several key pedagogies used in this area.

Convictions about potential - include dynamic of agency here (and limits?)

A clearer understanding of process of developing agency is needed .

4. Research objectives and questions

In this section on aims and objectives I will outline

  • the overall goal is to an and break it down a bit

Primary research question and aims and objectives

The overall aim of this study is best represented via the primary research question (PRQ) of this thesis: How can understandings of how to design and facilitate CGD&P be enriched using socio-cultural approaches?

Research sub-questions and aims and objectives

This aim is supported by more specific objectives via sub questions.

The sub-questions are explored in greater details at the end of Chapter 2 in relation to the problem statement of the thesis.

Research objectives & Recap of motivation

Despite the many studies published on the benefits of game making for learning, few contain detailed specifics of pedagogies when supporting learners in the process of game design.

LESS ON THIS. Additionally, many of the technologies used in past studies are no longer practical to use. This study aims to evaluate and build on relevant research, detailed in Chapter 2, and to update practices to use open-source, industry standard, web-technologies (HTML and JavaScript) with an aim to add longevity, authenticity, and extensibility to the game making toolset. In addition, this research proposes a clear but flexible pedagogy based around the use of gameplay design patterns, that has emerged from a responsive design process. These themes are continued in the design narrative of Chapter 4.

The scope of the thesis and what it does not try to address

The challenge of maintaining focus in this PhD process

The rich set of experiences and educational tools created made it difficult to disentangle the interplay of contributing elements to choose a focus suitable for a targeted PhD dissertation.

I did prioritise key elements of the experience.

I have also put to one side a line of inquiry exploring a drama process introduced in the third phase of the design. Instead, the main prioritisation is represented in the research questions: that being, the use of gameplay design patterns, and their relationship with emerging participant agency. Even this more limited focus, still contains a rich interplay of diverse tool use, varied of and a study of different dimensions of agency shown by participants.

(Why not use constructionism) - EDIT DOWN

Constructionism is a popular guiding theory in game making studies, illustrated in particular, by Kafai and colleagues outlining the value of making constructionist games [kafai_constructionist_2015]. Despite the value of these contributions to this domain of research, this section explains why I have chosen activity theory as a better fit for the aims of this thesis. I have been inspired by Papert and colleagues celebration of concrete approaches to creating digital project bricolage approaches and pioneering work of the resulting constructionist school, centred around MIT media lab, in design software and tools for students to learn in exploratory, project oriented ways.

While constructionism has been used as a “epistemological paradigm, a learning theory and a design framework” [@kynigos_constructionism:_2015], it is the latter that I find most productive due to its comparative weakness as a more general theoretical framework.

Summary of the theoretical framework of this thesis

In choosing a theoretical approach which aligned with the goals of the research questions and my role as both a practitioner and a researcher, it was vital to select a framework that could address potential complications within the research process. The focus of the research required a framework containing concepts able to the following: analyse the evolution of participant agency in the learning process, accommodate authentic learning contexts, conceptualise barriers to participation, and support a mutual approach to involving the community in design changes. To meet these needs I have chosen cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) and supplemented it with specific techniques of design-based research (DBR).

Activity theory as a theoretical framework provides tools to study the impact of past cultural activity of participants on present, emergent activity. CHAT also provides powerful concepts to explore a complex and dynamic picture of participant agency.

Chapter 3 explored in depth in these frameworks in relation to these needs.

5. Significance of the study

Wider implications and applications of the research

To further understand research objectives it is important to situate the potential relevance of the outcomes of this research by exploring its potential audience and impact. Given the overall direction of this thesis, there are several possible audiences to which this is relevant. These include home educating families, teachers and facilitators, researchers in computing, and media production areas. To address this potential a concrete and detailed approach to describing the research is taken to allow for the communication of specifics of workshop practices and pedagogical approaches. Practitioners may find the narrative description of the design in Chapter 4 an accessible starting point for this work.

Educational researchers may find the exploration of agency in this study of particular value. In Chapter 7 I employ recent advances in sociocultural interpretations of collective agency, transformative agency in particular, to analyse this community game making context. As such, while not theoretically novel, this work may form a useful, situated contribution to emerging work in this area.

To return to the pedagogical outputs, to find out who may benefit from the proposed inclusive game making pedagogy it is of use to ask who benefits from the success of the Game Making Movement? The term Game Making Movement has not been widely applied, but its use by some writers indicates that a significant amount of research has been carried out as part of funded programs, not to mention extensive and creative efforts by professionals and volunteers alike to incorporate this game making into educational experiences. There are diverse motivations to encourage in game making for learning. Examples are explore in more depth in Chapter 2, but include: supporting a stem-pipeline into industry, aims to develop digital literacy, to learning other school subjects or exploring ethical issues. When commercially or institutionally sponsored, some of the sponsors’ expectations may negatively impact the inclusivity of the learning environments in which game making happens. For examples, see Vossoughi and colleagues [@vossoughi_making_2016] critique of maker movement and the potentially negative impact of the positivist, industry-focused STEM agenda on inclusive practice. This study aims to lean in the other direction and prioritise learner agency. However, the developing of computational fluency in learners is of broad utility to varied streams and motivations. As such, the pedagogy and toolset to facilitate game making should be used broadly.

Contribution to knowledge of this thesis

While there has been a large body of research on the value and practice of game making for educational purposes, it is a dynamic landscape which has many areas which merit additional research. This study is novel in its approach of using a JavaScript game library in a code playground coding environment as a tool for novices.

While the theme of collaborative pedagogies and social practices are well explore in literature on game making, the process of creating a game making community are under-represented. Few addressing an explicit intention to nurture a community of game makers or details how the process of community formation occurred. While this wider community formation is not the main focus of this study, it is a thread which is explored here through the lens of collective agency. In order to capture and analyse the process of social and cultural development happening in the fledgling community I have used methods of data collection and analysis which I feel may be useful to share as a contribution to the field. Chapter 4 details the methodology of recording a dynamic picture of cultural interactions. Of particular novel interest may be the use of concurrent, side-by-side analysis of capture of what was happening on participants computer screens and 360 video recordings of the room interactions.

Turning to the issue of dissemination, the process of sharing details of pedagogical practice for and audience of researchers and practitioners is complicated. Many game making studies mentioned also omit descriptions of pedagogies used [@kafai_constructionist_2015].

Even when processes are described, results are often too abstract to be useful or easily understood by practitioners or too bound up with contextual factors to be replicable [@hoadley_creating_2002 CHECK]. This is a grand problem in education which this work cannot resolve, but can only seek to mitigate against. To this end, this study is guided by research processes which share, design heuristics in a format that is accessible by researchers and practitioners.

TOO SPECIFIC? MAKE MORE GENERAL? An example of which is the work of Brennan and Silverman [@resnick_reflections_2005], and Brennan and Petrich in tinkering studios. As a result, my research proposes as a design heuristic, the use of a collection of game design patterns. While some existing research on this approach exists [@holopainen2007teaching], this work contributes significantly to this area in the following ways: specifically by researching the use of a GDP collection by novice coders to make games using code, and through the an analysis of emerging pedagogical uses of gameplay design patterns which are explored in detail in chapter 5. The research process has created numerous practical outputs for practitioners in the form of free-software and educational materials created under an open-licence.

How much of this research is applicable beyond the domain of game making for educational purposes? The promise of computational thinking was in part based on such claims that it was a powerful way of thinking that could be transfered from the domain of computing to other subjects [@wing_computational_2006-1; @the_royal_society_shut_2012]. Sociocultural and situated understandings of learning view such transmission of knowledge as problematic, a view indeed shared by many advocates of computational thinking [@tedre_long_2016; @guzdial_learner-centered_2015-1].

In addition, the specific pedagogy which emerged centred around participants flexible use of game design patterns. On the other hand, the process which surfaced guiding design heuristics has greater potential for more diverse application. This theme is explored, along with other avenues of future potential in the concluding chapter.

INTEGRATE UP The promotion of computational thinking (CT) has been a key factor in the development of the UK’s computing curriculum. However, the claims of early advocates that CT skills could be applied widely in subjects beyond computing are now advanced more cautiously to avoid the danger of over-promising [@tedre_long_2016].

6. Chapter outline of the study

This introduction has covered key contextual, motivational and theoretical considerations relevant to this study. This section now outlines the structure and indicative content of the chapters of this thesis. The literature review begins the exploration of the key themes and threads that are integral to the findings of this study. One of the challenges of this work is to explore the details to a non-expert audience. While the literature review will begin to disambiguate some of the terms used in the thesis there is in addition a glossary which outlines short definitions of technical terms used. The glossary is included as an appendix to this study and as summary table is in the literature review. Key strand of the literature review include: a review of existing studies on game making; a comparative analysis of the claims of these studies with project-based learning approaches; a summary of the context of informal settings; and a detail exploration of varied game making pedagogies relevant to developing computational fluency. The chapter end by revisiting the problem statement of this thesis in line with gaps in existing research.

Chapter 3 details the theoretical framework used for this study, taking as its base the use of activity theory. I also explain how the design based research (DBR) aligns well with the aims of the research questions and the use of concepts and the leading approach of third generation activity theory (3GAT). This separate chapter allows for discussion of concepts aligned with the theoretical framework including: the iterative, mutual, and emergent nature of the resources and processes; the process of identifying units of analysis; and transformative conceptions of agency.

Chapter 4 describes the methodology of the study. I describe and justify the process of data gathering using computer screen capture and 360 cameras and other varied means. I explore the challenge of processing and analysing large amounts of research data and justify the resulting prioritisation of data. I also begin to describe the phases of learning delivery.

Chapter 5 takes the form of a process from design-based research, a design narrative, to provide a detailed description of the tools and pedagogies that that emerged from development process. To explore emerging tensions in design in a way which communicates relevant context, I outline key conflicts in interrelated activity systems using the terminology of third generation activity theory (3GAT). The chapter discussion begins explores themes of authenticity of tool use, the mutual nature of the evolution of the design, and initial barriers and corresponding interventions.

Chapter 6 focuses on the implementation of individual game design patterns (GDPs) and in doing so addresses how data gathered informs thinking on the research question - How can game design patterns support the development of computational fluency in novices?? This chapter begins by re-examining of game design patterns and game play design patterns in the context of a community of novice coders. Following this a vignette of parent child interaction in game making process introduces an overview of interactions of that pair to help contextualise findings. The chapter then undertakes a systematic analysis of the use of game design patterns by participants drawing on detailed observations of practice. A discussion section explores implications and observations from these findings in relation to existing research and concepts.

Chapter 7 discusses the characteristics of an inclusive pedagogical environment that helped participants become part of an emerging community of game makers. Its focus on emerging agency of participants to answer the third research question: How can learners build agency in an evolving community of game makers? To do this, it explores in particular the role of design interventions to support and nurture the expression learner identities, particular the role of playtesting.

Chapter 8 concludes the thesis with a final discussion on the significance of my findings in line with other research and discusses the limitations of this research and identifies areas for future work.

This introduction has outlined the core motivations for this study and summarised key, relevant contextual domains. The introduction also highlighted the complexities of and introduced the structure of the thesis, including a focus on key themes such as authenticity, barriers to participation, and inclusive pedagogical strategies. The next chapter will provide a detailed examination of relevant research on effective pedagogies and relevant theoretical concepts that are needed to follow this study. This review, in particular, clarifies key frameworks which contribute to understanding the study’s first research question. Chapter 2 also prepares the reader for a later exploration of how design-based research and third-generation activity theory are used in this study to answer the research questions.

To integrate above

Barriers to participation in game making practices (explored in contextual settings)

This section review existing research on digital making to identify barriers to participation in digital making and in particular coding practices in key contexts.

While the primary focus of this thesis is on an emerging coding community in a non-formal learning environment, the wider implications and learners should be applicable in school settings. There are however existing institutional barriers to this happening in traditional school classrooms. To address this, the next section explores these barriers in a UK context of computing and digital skills school-based education.

Institutional Barriers - related to UK School context

  • Change of exam in to computing in 2014

A change driven by x

A section on the promise of the curriculum, and the hobby based activities created by individuals and non-profits to support project based work. However, in 201X, the coursework element of GSCE exam, which allowed students to engage with hands on coding, was rapidly removed due to student accessing ‘worked examples’ of code solutions online and incorporating them into their.

As students are able to write in psuedo code this means

Technical Barriers - Difficulties in learning to program

Summary here [@gomes2007learning] [@joao_cross-analysis_2019]. and here

<!-- Through a literature review on this topic, we aim to organize and   systematize the main difficulties into four dimensions of analysis: (i) subject and complexity of languages; (ii) technologies and applications; (iii) teachers and teaching methodologies; and (iv) pupils’ skills[@joao_cross-analysis_2019] -->

In particular, the dilemma between more authentic languages and block based approaches [@joao_cross-analysis_2019].

More literature which examines the complexity of language and development environments should be found here.

Complexity of syntax and problem of leading with syntax [@gomes2007learning]

Issues of needing levels of abstraction in learning programming [@gomes2007learning].

Specialist coding tools and computational kits

There may software and hardware kits aimed at novice coders and in particular younger audience [@yu_survey_2018].

This section briefly summarises some of the adaptation in particular, that software has undergone to adapt to this audience.

Much work has been taken out by MIT family developing Papert’s ideas on constructionism in tool use

  • Block coding vs text coding, syntax
  • Design principles for game making tools, [@kafai_connected_2016; @resnick_reflections_2005] ()
  • Barriers in using support material for code examples- mapping, understanding, [@wang_novices_2021]

Scratch and GSM merit particular examination as mini-case studies. The

  • Scratch and community element.
  • Remix as a feature: [@amanullah_evaluating_2019]
  • Online log in
  • library of assets to speed up creation
  • In built asset authoring tools.

Game star Mechanic added quest ability, and a narrative set in a steam punk aesthetic. Of interest to this study are the motivational use of narrative, and accompanying resources which help analysis of game design patterns and systems based challenges.

NOTE - referenced in design chapter - the alignment with the use of code playground and template.

Computing syntax Lack of knowledge of what to design.. which they call “sandbox games,” that integrates the worlds”

Cultural / Identity barriers to participation in …

Barriers to participation

Develop from introduction, move to a overview of literature which addresses barriers in participation in coding communities from literature.

The focus of this review is to identify broad streams and currents in research.

Barrier - Identity and computer cultures

Early work from Papert and Turkle addresses cultural barriers to computing culture [-@papert_epistemological_1990]. The distinction between hard and soft approaches to learning is explored particularly in studies refuting conceptions that there is a right way to do computer coding. In this context, the hard approach infers a top-down perspective, highlighting advance planning and logical deconstruction of large problems. Papert and Turkle identify the privileging of abstract thinking over concrete approaches in classroom teaching a tendency which is mirrored by recent conceptions and advancement of computational thinking as teaching ideology [@wing_computational_2008].

Paper and Turkle locate different, softer but equally effective coding strategies. Soft coding suggests a more immediate and learner-directed connection with the materials or digital artefacts involved. The learner is presented as adapting a familiar set of concepts and processes to new situations and challenges as they arise as a ‘tinker’ might use well worn tools to skilfully bodge a repair job [@papert_childrens_1993, p. 143].

Kafai and Peppler also address the issues of gender identities and game design [@kafai_beyond_2014] asking how to create new communities and learning environments which align with values of participants rather than aiming to break into existing ones. They propose that we ask not How can we bring girls into the game making clubhouse but rather How can we build new clubhouses suitable for the interests of girls. Two of the playful elements they suggest are textiles related technology and the promotion of more collaborative online spaces as opposed to technology competitions.

Barrier - unfamiliarity with support practices

While home education support practices of families are expressed in this setting, a computing context requires specific support techniques that may be unfamiliar to parents [@roque_engaging_nodate; @roque_becoming_2018].

Outlining cultural barriers / aspects of game making

The following studies are explored future in LR. Here I surface cultural barriers experienced by participants.

Gender related identities

  • Important to caution against gender stereo-typing and identity in relation to computers [@pelletier_gaming_2008]
  • study by Fisher and Jenson critically explored diverse themes through a summer game making programme 2017). Emerging issues included pinkification, marginalisation and exclusions of women from game cultures, sexualisation and harassment.

Race related identities

In study by Thayter and Ko [@thayer_barriers_2017] the work of Margolis et al is analysed using concepts from communities of practice, type of barriers, and personal obstacles [@margolis_stuck_2008;]

Stuck in the Shallow End: Education, Race and Computing by Margolis, Estrella, et al. [ 12] examined the racial gap in high school CS, finding barriers that included lack of access to classes (formal boundary), cultural expectations on who the classes were for, feelings of isolation in classes, divisions within classes between those who “have it or don’t have it” (informal boundaries), and lack of social support(personal obstacle). Additional studies found participation and success in computing programs depended on background experience [ 2, 27 ], comfort level [ 27 ], sense of belonging and stereotypes (dis proportionately negatively affecting women) [ 2 , 5, 10, 16 ], view of self as an “insider” [21], and believed role of luck [27]

Glitch game testers [@disalvo_saving_2014; @disalvo_glitch_2009-1; @disalvo_learning_2008]

Outro

Illingworth critique’s Kafai and Burke’s book due to lack of specificity in the game making techniques outlined. This is particularly the case in chapter x which explores cultural elements of game making research. In recent years the constructionist school has taken care to start to describe cultural elements of learning environments [EVIDENCE]. Other approaches exist - AT etc .

TO DROP OR MERGE UP.

Existing responses to challenges

Several reports have produced recommendation for school practice. Some of which are particularly relevant to this study’s focus on supporting a project-based approach to making a digital game. These recommendations and evaluation of their uptake is integrated in the following sections.

Digital projects as an inclusive pedaogogy - MOVE TO INTRODUCTION

Livingstone’s [@livingstone_next_2011] report focused on providing the UK games and animation industry with new talent, recommended that to implement well-supported use of games and visual animation in the school curriculum as a way to attract more young people to take digital-related subjects.

The After the Reboot report [@waite_pedagogy_2017], suggested game making as a way of increasing engagement in the process of coding. The review highlighted several areas of promise which needed more research: using games for engagement, use of design patterns - a term explored later in this chapter - and the involvement of girls in coding and social and cultural aspects of coding.

Research on inclusive approaches to digital media production explored, highlights the value of authentic projects, end products which incorporate personal creativity, and processes which incorporate a building of sense of community participation. While there is a broad consensus on how to address these issue of exclusion from computing cultures which align with the techniques of project-based learning (PBL) project work, there are contextual challenges to applying these in schools contexts. Resnick and Rusk outline key significant challenges [-@resnick_coding_2020] including the lack of meaningful contexts, lack of time allocated preventing project approaches, and an over-reliance on rote instruction. ADD ANOTHER SOURCE HERE.

Resource provision and CPD

The benefits of game making aligns with those of wider creative computing projects. There has been extensive publication on computing education and techniques aimed to support teachers often new to the subject. These include a new website with materials, including quick guides and writing around a set of 12 computing principles. A lot of this literature is aimed at helping teachers in a classroom context and with a focus of explaining and exploring computing context.

MORE ON THIS - OTHER TIPS FROM NCCE AND LINKS TO RESOURCES. BUT NOT TOO MUCH

While projects are mentioned as a principle that allows learners to deepen their understanding on computing concepts by putting them into practice. There is less on specifics of how teachers can support project work or indeed how to best develop resources to support project work in schools.

Computing at schools

While based on formal education. It is worth returning to this community and the challenge of computing in schools.

Coding, new for many teachers, a great response from those involved.

Open source, online responses to the challenge

The promise of Connected Learning - See work of Ito and partners.

This was part of the narrative of Gove in 2014, it’s all online, and while he was right in part, access to these resources addresses few of the key barriers to participation.

Mozilla, an open source toolset

One of the challenges of a foundation-based approach is the sustainability of the programs involved. One counter to this is using open source toolsets and a community based, and decentralised approach to creating resources.

ADD IN HERE WHAT IS WEB LITERACY AND DIFFERENT FROM DIGITAL LIT . SEE END OF LIT REVIEW

Mozilla, acted as a broker between the open source community, and community educators who all chipped in to create teach the web.

A Mozilla white paper [@mozilla_foundation_webmaker_2014] outlines the power of exploring web technology as an empowering activity. As part of their teach the web and web literacy programme, Mozilla created internet browser based tools to support of novices investigate and to remix HTML pages. They also created several online and real-life communities sharing activities drawing on home interests to explore authentic web technologies, and the digital literacy elements needed to be an effective citizen. [@thorne_clubs_2015].

In 2015 I contributed a short line course called Quacking Javascript to this webmaker curriclum. In my report on the underlying pedagogical approaches [@chesterman_webmaking_2015], I outlined the following possibilities to increase participant engagement; playful approaches, use of games, and the ability for participants to incorporate popular culture and home interests into their work.

There were limits to the take up of the curriclum but the Thimble community was active while it lasted and created some good resources.

4-DROP MERGE. Introduction to theoretical framework & agency

Given the overall concerns and motivations of the study this section addresses the following in terms of the current state of research.

  • why not constructionism? given dominance in CDG&P? (intro followed in Ch2. )
  • what are we designing for in the context of this study
  • what is agency in the context of this study

Theoretical framework

TOO DETAILED TO EARLY - SUMMARISE BASED ON THE ABOVE MOTIVATIONS.

Choosing a theoretical framework which aligns with the goals of the research questions is an important decision in undertaking a PhD study. In my role as both a practitioner and a researcher, it was vital to select a framework that could incorporate potential complications within the research process. The focus of the research required a framework containing concepts able to the following: analyse the evolution of participant agency in the learning process, accommodate authentic learning contexts, conceptualise barriers to participation, and support a mutual approach to involving the community in design changes. To meet these needs I have chosen cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) and supplemented it with specific techniques of design-based research (DBR). The following sections give a short overview of these frameworks in relation to these needs. They are explored in depth in Chapter 3.

On agency and cultural historical activity theory / socio-cultural approach

PERHAPS SOMEBACKGROUND ON STUDIES IN THIS AREA THAT TAKE A SOCIO CULTURAL APPROACH. WAITE / SENTENCE?

GIVE A WORKING DEFINITION OF AGENCY HERE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF THAT CONCEPT TO THE STUDY.

In the interests of evaluation the pedagogical possibilities of new software, hardware and coding environments, researchers frequently adopt a position as a practitioner or co-facilitator of a novel learning design a researcher of the process. Thus a concept of learning or processes that is dynamic and open to change is needed. In addition, this study, in part, explores ways in which how the motivational characteristics and navigational affordances of enthusiast and home based game making can be brought into more structured educational environments. CHAT provides an appropriate means to achieve this through its perspective of interacting systems of activity where the values and actions of one system can impact activity in another.

CHAT’s rich vocabulary to describe barriers, resolutions and online going tensions in on-going project work is potentially productive in this study. The focus of barriers to participation and strategies to address them is covered by RQ1 using the phrase ‘what contradictions arose in participation’. The term contradiction is a significant in the school of research known as cultural historical activity theory (CHAT), encompassing a variety of concepts including barriers, contextual drivers and drags, interventions for change, and tensions which emerge between different elements of the activity in question.

CHAT is optimistic but realistic in its focus on change. It approaches activity in a systemic way and contains tools to address and discuss issues of unintended consequences and push back against interventions. This is of particular relevance to the domain of technology use which is a feature of this study. As these new technologies can provide communities with tools to leverage new opportunities in a way which gives participants greater agency, a research framework which contains a toolset of concepts to describe and analyse varied dimensions of agency is beneficial. As agency and autonomy have disputed, often inter-related definitions [@huang_autonomy_2013; @matusov_mapping_2016], in Chapter 3 I explore dimensions and terms related to agency more precisely within the wider framework of activity theory.

High level overview of why not constructionism?: Given that Papert, etc why not constructionism as a theoretical framework? I contend that there are useful tools in socio-cultural CHAT approaches that can enrich studies in this area. Additionally, in Chapter x I explore important limitations in constructionism that activity theory approaches can address.

In addition, due to value of and importance of participants home use of technologies and experiences of learning, it is useful to adopt a research process in which involves participants in the evolving learning design then are engaging with and in turn the overall direction of the research process. This study outlines ways in which working with participants has yielded important contributions of novel ideas. To achieve this, I have supplemented the use of activity theory with the use of design based research (DBR) techniques.

On utility and Design-based research

Design based research is not a uniform practice with set methodology but there is a general consensus in guiding principles. For Sandoval [-@sandoval_conjecture_2014], these involve joint work on a project and theoretical refinement, iterative design process involving phases of planning delivery, evaluation working towards outcomes of interest. While DBR is explored in a more nuanced way in Chapter 3, it is worth noting at this stage that it provides practical tools which are complementary with CHAT, to undertake and to represent complex learning designs taking place in authentic learning environments. In particular, DBR provides means to fulfil a key motivation of this research, to guide and to represent the evolution of a useful game making pedagogy. As remarked earlier, the format of academic research papers, even those focused on practice, often eschews methodological detail in favour of analysis and results. Hoadley notes “the usual study presents a technology fully formed as if it had risen from the oceans like Venus herself” [@hoadley_creating_2002]. To address this issue Chapter 4 of this thesis incorporates a design narrative, a process adopted from DBR, which I explain and justify in Chapters 3.

  1. https://web.archive.org/web/20200423162826/http://edlab.org.uk/ ↩

  2. http://archive.flossmanuals.net/an-open-web/ ↩